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Aging is a particularly troublesome affair, and until recently it was considered to be an inescapable fact of life. Over the past few decades, however, scientists have discovered that aging follows a predictable path. Unsurprisingly, there is great interest in avoiding that path.

As we age, we experience a gradual decline of physiological function. Over time, our cells accumulate damage and their performance suffers. When the damage reaches a threshold, cells die. Fortunately, there is a system for replacing the dying cells stem cells. Unfortunately, stem cells also age. Consequently, their performance suffers, and they lose their capacity to create healthy new cells.

The new biotechnology firm Altos Labs has recently announced it was taking on aging. At first glance, it is hard to get excited about this. After all, a half-dozen biotech firms have made similar statements over the past decade or so. Altos Labs, which has already secured $3 billion in funding, hasnt released much information about their strategy, only that they are focused on cellular rejuvenation programming to restore cell health and resilience, with the goal of reversing disease to transform medicine. Catchy sales pitch, but not a lot of substance.

Altos Labs has, however, released a lot of information about the scientists theyve recruited, and it is an impressive list, comprising some of the superstars in aging-related disorder research. These scientists backgrounds would suggest Altos Labs has a two-pronged research strategy: 1) reverse the damage that occurs as we age and 2) rejuvenate stem cells capacity to create healthy new cells. A spa day and a cocktail, basically.

Stress ages us. Thus, one of the keys to living a long and healthy life is to relax. We cant escape stress, but if we relax after a stressful event, we can escape many of the consequences of stress.

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Stress also ages our cells. Admittedly, they arent dealing with psychological stress from poverty or global pandemics, but they have their own problems, such as nutrient deprivation and viral infection. These cellular stressors can damage a cells proteins, and if there is a lot of damaged protein, a cell cant function well. Cells cannot escape stress. They may not become infected, but they will suffer some form of stress eventually. Luckily, cells have a mechanism for escaping the consequences of stress: the integrated stress-response (ISR) pathway.

When cellular stressors are detected, the ISR initiates spa mode. However, instead of relaxing while a masseuse rubs away muscle knots, cellular spa mode involves shutting down non-essential cellular operations and cleansing the cell of damaged proteins. If the cleansing is successful, the cell is rejuvenated. If not, then ISR presses the termination button. The cell dies, but ideally, a stem cell quickly creates a healthy new cell to replace it.

ISR is more active as we get older, which means cells spend more time in spa mode. A comparison of adult and older male mice demonstrated an increase of ISR activity levels in all tested tissues, including kidney, liver, colon, brain, testes, pancreas, lung, and heart.

However, it is not clear if the increase in ISR activity is a good thing. On one hand, it might promote health in old animals by rejuvenating cells. On the other hand, it might instead contribute to destroying cells unnecessarily.

Destroying a damaged cell can be a good thing, as long as it is quickly replaced with a healthy new cell. However, adult stem cells appear to age with the person. As stem cells age, their ability to create healthy new cells deteriorates. Consequently, a cell might die because ISR has determined it was too damaged, only to be replaced with a cell that is almost equally as damaged.

Essentially, this is like terminating an overstressed employee whose performance has dropped. Then, you wait six months to hire a new employee who is slightly less stressed. A couple months later, you lay off the new employee. During that six-month period, other employees will have to shoulder extra responsibility. Their stress will grow, their performance will drop, and next thing you know, youve laid off the whole department. Catastrophic organ failure is the main cause of age-related disorders.

It is tempting to speculate that inhibiting ISR in adults could solve a lot of problems. Sure, thered be no more spa day, but thered also be no more mass layoffs. But its not that simple. ISR inhibition does enhance memory and lifespan. However, ISR activation reduces the severity of Huntingtons disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), and multiple sclerosis. Thus, the ISR appears to play a beneficial and detrimental role in health depending on the context. Altos Labs scientists will have to gain a better understanding of ISRs context-dependent effects before they can create new anti-aging therapeutics.

No matter how efficient the body is at rejuvenating cells, cells will die and need to be replaced. As we age, however, replacing cells takes more time. For example, healing of a fractured bone takes much longer in older individuals than in younger individuals.

Stem cells are responsible for replacing damaged cells. Like any other cell, stem cells are vulnerable to cellular stressors. This likely contributes to their own aging, but there is also evidence that stem cells DNA changes as during physiological aging. More specifically, the DNAs structure is changed (called an epigenetic change), but not the DNAs sequence. In other words, regardless of their age, stem cells keep the same genes; however, as stem cells age, some genes are tightly packaged up and no longer accessible.

Epigenetic changes are often helpful. For example, a liver-replenishing stem cell will package up all of its neuron genes. When that stem cell creates a new liver cell, the new cell cant accidentally express those neuron genes.

But in the case of aging, the epigenetic changes can be harmful. For example, in addition to packaging the neuron genes, an old liver-replenishing stem cell might package up two other genes:

When a new liver cell is created, it wont be able to access the cleansing gene. As a result, that cell will have a harder time cleansing itself of damaged proteins. Thus, it will die more quickly and need to be replaced again. Unfortunately, that replacement will be slow to arrive because the stem cell cant access the replication gene.

It is unclear why a stem cell would gradually package up helpful and important genes. One hypothesis is that this process ensures we will die. When old organisms die, it frees up resources for young, sexually reproductive organisms. Thus, there is an evolutionary advantage to death.

Regardless of why stem cells do this, it would be helpful to discover a way to liberate some of the genes packaged during aging. Scientists have suspected that this could reverse a stem cells aging-associated functional decline. In 2006, Shinya Yamanaka discovered the tools necessary to do this.

Yamanaka and his team showed that activating four gene regulators (now referred to as the Yamanaka factors) can reset a stem cells epigenetic changes, essentially turning it into a young stem cell. (Yamanaka won the Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine for this discovery, and he is a consultant for Altos Labs.)

However, its not as simple as giving a stem cell an endless supply of Yamanaka factor cocktails. When a stem cell is stimulated with all the Yamanaka factors at once, all the genes are unpackaged, resulting in an unspecialized stem cell. This is analogous to resetting your brain to what it was as a baby; your potential would be incredible, but you would need guidance to harness that potential. In the same way, unspecialized stem cells have the potential to become any type of cell, but they will need lots of guidance. And scientists have only begun to scratch the surface on how to guide cells in their development.

However, they might not need to know how to guide development if they want to treat age-related diseases. Researchers recently discovered that moderation is the key to avoiding the problem of unspecialization.

Essentially, stimulating cells with just the right Yamanaka factors at just the right time partially resets the stem cells. These partially reset cells retain their ability to create new cells without extra guidance. Experiments on mice have shown how a partial reset can stop the progression of progeria (a mutation-induced syndrome that mimics rapid aging), can promote the healing of injured muscles, and can protect the liver against medication-mediated damage.

Age-related disorders dementia, arthritis, cancers dont significantly shorten our life span. They are often more cruel than that. Instead, they shorten our health span. They steal our memories, our independence, and our tranquility. From what I can tell, Altos Labs isnt looking for the secret to immortality or even the secret to increasing the human lifespan. They (and all the other anti-aging biotech firms) seem to be searching for a way to make aging less cruel.

So, dont expect an elixir of life that grants immortality anytime soon. Perhaps in a few decades, well know enough about aging to entertain a discussion about extending the human lifespan. But until then, I suspect spas and moderate cocktails are the best path for aging gracefully.

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Anti-aging isn't a scam, but immortality almost certainly ...

Once upon a time, over two thousand years ago, the first Emperor of China was so great, powerful, and ambitious that he spent his entire life pursuing his ultimate goal: Trying to find a potion that could make him immortal. Indeed, in the end, he found immortality in the history books.

This crucial chapter in Chinese history unfolded in one of the oldest cities in China, the city ofXi'an. The birth of China's first imperial dynasty took place during a time of conflict, betrayal, and lust for power that shaped the future of the nation.

The Zhou Dynasty was the longest-ruling Chinese dynasty. It lasted from 1122-255 BC. The Qin Dynasty(pronounced chin), the first dynasty of Imperial China, was the shortest-ruling Chinese dynasty (221-206 BCE). It lasted only 15 years, well against the First Emperor's wishes. The latter is the dynasty that occupies our interest.

The Qin Dynasty reunited China and laid the foundation for 21 centuries of imperial rule. Our focus is on the tragic and ironic destiny of the First Emperor of China, who died during his search for the elixir of life after a life-long fear of death.

Qin Shi Huang (Ying Zheng) was born in 259 BCE in Hanan, but the exact date is unknown.It is believed that the name Qin is the etymological ancestor of today's name of the country, China. Some scholars, though, dismissed this etymology.

Ying Zheng was the son of King Zhuangxiang of Qin and Lady Zhao Ji. Or that is what the King believed. A legend says that Lu Buwei, a rich merchant, and his wife, Zhao Ji, had got pregnant when Buwei arranged for Zhuangxiang to meet and fall in love with her. When Zhao Ji gave birth to Lu Buwei's child in 259 BCE, the King believed the baby was his own.

Ying Zheng became King of the Qin state upon the death of his supposed father. The young King was only 13 years old. His prime minister and likely real father, Lu Buwei, acted as regent for the first eight years.

According to the Records of the Grand Historian, in 240BCE, Lu Buwei introduced the King's mother, Zhao Ji, to Lao Ai as part of a scheme to depose Qin Shi Huang. The queen dowager and Lao Ai had two sons. In 238 BCE, Lao Ai and Bu Buwei decided to launch a coup. Lao Ai raised an army with the help of the king of nearby Wei. He tried to seize control while Qin Shi Huang was traveling.

However, Qin Shi Huang found out about the rebellion. Lao was executed by having his neck, arms, and legs tied to horses, which were spurred to run in different directions. The young King forced his mother Zhao Ji to watch, while soldiers went to kill his two half-brothers.

Lao's whole family and all relatives to the third degree (uncles, aunts, and cousins) were also killed. Zhao Ji was spared, but forced to spend the rest of her life under house arrest. Lu Buwei was banished after the incident. He lived in constant fear of execution. In 235 BCE, Lu Buwei committed suicide by drinking poison.

After the Lao Ai incident, Qin Shi Huang grew increasingly suspicious of everyone around him. He survived two murder attempts.

Qin Shi Huang had around 50 children including Fusu, Gao, Jiangl, and Huhai, but had no empress. His most notable quote is: "I have collected all the writings of the Empire and burnt those which were of no use." Of not use for him, that is.

Zheng assumed the sacred titles of legendary rulers and proclaimed himself Qin Shi Huang (First Sovereign Emperor of Qin). He claimed that his dynasty would last 10,000 generations. However, the 15 years of the Qin dynasty was the shortest major dynasty in the history of China, consisting of only two emperors. The 35-year reign of Qin Shi Huang brought both rapid cultural and intellectual advancement as well as much destruction and oppression within China.

Yet, the Qin dynasty inaugurated an imperial system that lasted from 221 BCE until 1912. The Qin introduced a standardized currency, weights, measures, and a uniform system of writing, which aimed at unifying the state and promote commerce. The military used the latest weaponry, transportation, and military tactics. The Confucians portrayed the Qin dynasty as a monolithic tyranny, citing a purge which was known as the burning of books and burying of scholars.

As the Emperor entered middle age, he grew more and more afraid of death. Qin Shi Huang became obsessed with finding an elixir of life, a potion for immortality. The court alchemists and doctors devoted day and night to find potions for the Emperor, many of them containing quicksilver (mercury). Slowly, the ironic effect of the potions resulted in the death of the Emperor, rather than preventing it.

The Emperor also ordered the construction of a gargantuan tomb for himself, in case the immortality treatment failed. Plans for the Emperor's tomb included flowing rivers of mercury, cross-bow booby traps to thwart would-be plunderers, and replicas of all the Emperor's earthly palaces.

In 211 BCE, a large meteor fell in Dongjun, representing an ominous sign for the Emperor. What followed was a stone found with the words "the First Emperor will die and his land will be divided." The Emperor ordered everyone in the vicinity to be executed, since no one would confess to the crime.

A year later, while touring eastern China, Qin Shi Huang died on September 10, 210 BCE in Julu Commandery. He was 49 years old. Details of the cause of Qin Shi Huang's death are largely unknown to this date. However, it is known that the cause of death was mercury poisoning.

Reportedly, he died from Chinese alchemical elixir poisoning due to ingesting mercury pills --made by his alchemists and court physicians-- believing it to be an elixir of immortality. The Emperor, who had feared death since a young age, wanted to conquer death at any cost and was kin on trying immortality treatments.

Qin Shi Huang believed that as the Emperor of China, he would need an army in the afterlife, in the event that his elixir of life failed him. He believed an army could protect him. So, his subjects built 8,000 soldiers, 130 chariots, and 670 horses out of terracotta to help protect the great Emperor from his rival armies in the afterlife. The project took off and a mausoleum was carefully planned.

The construction of the one-of-its-kind mausoleum began when the Emperor was just 14 years old, and long before he took on power. We are talking about a 14-year-old child who witnessed the preparations for his own death before he had the chance to live, which might explain his life-log terrifying fear of death.

In the second year of their reign, Kings began building their own tomb. his father died when he was 13 years old. Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of his mausoleum at the age of 14.

As his own tomb grew, so did his fear of death. The fear of death would accompany him for the rest of his life, well until the end.

It took immense manpower to complete the Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor, which was only discovered, and in part unearthed, in March 1974.

The Mausoleum of the First Qin Emperor and First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang, was constructed for over 38 years, from 246 to 208 BCE. The Mausoleum is underneath a 76-meter-tall (249 feet) tomb mound-shaped like a truncated pyramid in Lintong District, Xi'an, Shaanxi province of China.

The tomb complex contains an estimated 8,000 life-like clay soldiers, chariots, horses, weapons, and mass graves with evidence of brutal power. Archeologists have been reluctant to open Qin Shi Huang's actual tomb.

The Terracotta Army is a collection of over 8,000 real-size sculptures depicting the armies of the First Emperor of China, Qin Shi Huang. Archeologists first found 8,000 warriors. Each warrior has very distinct facial features. Most recently, archeologists in China found over 200 others. Experts in military say the discovery of the warriors depicts how the Qin military used to operate.

The Terracotta Army is a display of the militar formation of the Qin army. The first three rows are archers facing forward. Behind them, stand infantry men in 38 rows, poise to strike upon commander's orders. The flanks are defended by troops on the peripheric, facing upward, watching for threats from any direction.

The funerary massive art collection was buried with the Emperor in 210-209 BCE to protect him in his afterlife. All the terracotta warriors are facing east, and there is a reason for that.

During the 3rd Century BCE, the land we now call China was a bloody battle ground, and battles went on for decades. According to historical records, the original ruling area in Qin was the west, whereas all the other states were in the east of China. Qin Shi Huang's goal was to unify all states. The fact that the warriors and horses are facing east confirms his determination for unification even in his afterlife.

Each Terracotta Warrior is 1.80 centimeters (6 feet) tall and weighs 160 to 300 kilograms (approximately 300 to 400 pounds). An interesting fact is that the hands were made in one whole piece and separately, they would only be added at the end.Each Terracotta Warrior was molded with individual and unique facial features. The bodies and limbs were mass-produced from molds.

The FBI has estimated that each 300-kilogram Terracotta Warrior is worth $4.5 million. Perhaps this explains why in December 2017, someone broke off and stole a Terracotta Warrior's left thumb from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, in The United States, where 10 of the ancient relics were on loan. Although the event speaks more about ignorance than about greed.

The Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered the construction of the Great Wall around 221 BCE to protect his Empire from the recurrent threat from the north, raids by the nomadic Xiongnu, who were the ancestors of Attila's Huns.

The labor force that built the enormous defensive wall was largely made up of hundreds of thousands of slaves and convicts. The work was completed between 220 and 206 BCE. Thousands died during that period at the task.

The northern fortification formed the first section of what later on would become the Great Wall of China. In 214, the Emperor ordered the construction of a canal which would link the Yangtze and Pearl River systems, the Lingqu Canal.

The Great Wall was not just built by slaves and convicts. Scholars who refused to allow their books to be burned following orders from Emperor Qin Shi Huang were either burned alive or sent to work on the wall.

In 213 BCE, the Emperor's orders were that all books that were not about agriculture, medicine, prophesy, or related to his reign had to be burned. It was a way of weakening scholars and teachers, especially Confucianism and a number of other philosophies. Qin Shi Huang viewed these schools of thought as threats to his authority. Let's not forget that knowledge is power, and the Emperor wanted absolute control and power over China.

Approximately 460 scholars were not lucky enough to work on the wall as slaves. Instead, they were buried alive for daring to disagree with the Emperor. Other 700 scholars were stoned to death. From then on, the only school of thought approved by the Emperor was legalism, which meant to follow the Emperor's laws, or face the consequences.

Whether Qin Shi Huang should be remembered more for his architectural creations and cultural advances, or for his brutal tyranny is a matter of dispute. All scholars, however, agree that Qin Shi Huang, the First Emperor of the Qin dynasty and a unified China, was one of the most important rulers in the whole Chinese history.

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The First Emperor of China Who Died in His Quest Pursuing Immortality - Interesting Engineering

Is it possible to extend lifespans to, say, 120 years, or longer, asks Devangshu Datta.

IMAGE: The average person can now expect to live longer, and maintain better health than in any previous era. Photograph: Kind courtesy Alexis Len/ There have been many stunning advances in the biosciences but the process of ageing remains mysterious.

Life expectancy has increased in most places due to better nutrition, improved hygiene and healthcare, buttressed by new medicines and genetic research that tackles previously incurable diseases and conditions.

The average person can expect to live longer, and maintain better health than in any previous era.

But can the longevity of the species itself increase?

Every historical era has produced the odd individual who lived 80-90 years, or longer, in times when average life expectancy was less than 40.

We can certainly hope that more people will attain longer lifespans.

Life expectancy across the EU exceeds 80 years, and Japan, Singapore and Switzerland are 85-plus.(India is 69).

But is it possible to extend lifespans to, say, 120 years, or longer?

Some people think so.

There are therefore, two related but different goals, for researchers and policymakers.

One is to create a policy environment where more people live longer, and remain healthier.

The other, more ambitious goal is to understand ageing, and reverse its effects to extend potential lifespan.

There are around 500,000 people aged 100plus at the moment.

This number will roughly double in every future decade.

A in Science journal suggests there may be no obvious limit to lifespan.

Italian demographers Elisabetta Barbi and Francesco Lagona, and the Italian National Institute of Statistics, looked at the records of 3,836 people, aged 105 or older in Italy, between 2009 and 2015.

As we know, intuitively, as well as statistically, the risk of dying increases for every adult.

That is, a 21-year-old is slightly more likely to die in the next 12 months, than a 20-year-old, and that risk continues to rise with every year.

Oddly, this study indicates that the risk plateaus after 105 the risk of dying in any given 12 month period seems to stay at around 50 per cent after the age of 105.

This could be a statistical, or methodological quirk, or it could indicate some biological phenomenon where cell-repair processes balance off ageing effects.

The convergence of genome sequencing, AI and cellular medicine will enable breakthroughs that will make 100 years old, the new 60.

The XPRIZE Foundation, which has supported space research and robotics, among other things, recently became interested in longevity research.

One of the XPRIZE Board members, Sergey Young, has raised $ 100 million for a Longevity Vision Fund.

This will invest in biotech startups, researching longevity-related areas.

Young believes lifespans can be increased to 200 years and that the technologies to enable this can be made available to over 1 billion people.

X-PRIZE founder, Peter Diamandis is more measured but upbeat in saying, Adding 20 to 30 healthy years on a persons life is likely to be the largest market opportunity on Earth.

The convergence of genome sequencing, AI and cellular medicine will enable breakthroughs that will make 100 years old, the new 60.

XPRIZE recently held a longevity conference and released a road map, which listed 12 areas, where breakthroughs or improvements could promote better health and increased life expectancy.

According to The Lancet, over 70 per cent of deaths are due to chronic age-related diseases.

The list includes cancer, Alzheimers, heart disease, liver disease, etc.

The 12 listed breakthrough areas include:

These are ambitious but understandable areas for study.

The three science fiction objectives are: First, arresting ageing by completely stopping the ageing process for at least one year.

This would have to be demonstrated first on mammals and then on humans.

The second is creating a model of the human body which is detailed and accurate enough to replace experimentation with human subjects.

This could circumvent current restrictions on research, which could be of potential benefit but likely to be dangerous to the subject.

The third is ageing circumvented: A method to move the brain with or without the entire head of one person to the body of another, or to a non-human vessel, for over a year, while maintaining conscious thought or (in the case of cryonics) demonstrating that consciousness can be recovered after a time.

Achieving this would effectively mean immortality.

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Slow march on the path to immortality - Rawlins Review

By Lukasz Jaros

Over the past century, the average human lifespan has increased from 45 years to almost 80 years. In large part, this is the direct result of the invention of vaccines, antivirals, and antibiotics.1 The threat of outside agents to health has decreased significantly. Now, scientists have turned to the human body to tackle the remaining barriers to extending human life. As it turns out, the very essence of life, DNA, can also facilitate illness and death, as damage to DNA can occur as an individual ages. The new treatment that is being developed to address this issue is gene therapy. However, to prove its worth, gene therapy cannot simply treat against the progress of degradation in the human body; it must also reverse it. If humans attain immortality, the inevitable questions becomes, Should we live forever?

To understand how scientists are undertaking the monumental task of extending life, one must first understand the mechanism of aging and death. Dr. Valter Longo and his team at the University of South California are making steady progress in this direction. In 1996, Dr. Longo described how, much like the combustion reaction damages the engine of a car over time, mitochondria (which supply every cell in our body with energy) wear down due to the energy-releasing reactions occurring within them.2 These chemical processes can cause similar damage to DNA, whether inside the mitochondria or elsewhere in the cell. This corruption of cellular structures represents the main cause of bodily decay and aging. Throughout the past decade, Dr. Longo and his team have isolated 2 genes (RAS2 and SCH9) and two genetic pathways (IGF-1 and PKA) responsible for aging.3 By excising these genes and restricting caloric intake, they have increased the lifespan of yeast tenfold and doubled the lifespan of mice.4

In 2008, Dr. Longo explained in The Journal of Cell Biology how the deletion of SCH9 [and RAS2]protects against age-dependent defectsby inhibiting error-prone recombination and preventing DNA damage and dedifferentiation, [which is a specialized cells regression to a more embryonic, unspecialized form].3 In effect, the deletion reduced the risk of harmful DNA mutations by keeping the cell in the G0 phase, a specialized, non-dividing, resting state that resists environmental stresses and reduces risk of cancer. Meanwhile, the low calorie diet enhanced the effect by favoring these non-dividing cells and acting on the natural inhibitory pathways that prevent cellular division under unfavorable conditions. Finally, the absence of IGF-1 and PKA pathways repress metabolic activity in mitochondria, further decreasing their degradation.5

In 2011, Dr. Longo collaborated with a team of endocrinologists from Ecuador to demonstrate that human populations with deficiencies in expression of the genes IGF-1, RAS, PKA, and SCH9 displayed a delayed onset of aging in addition to a very low incidence of cancer and diabetes.6 Theoretically, scientists could significantly delay aging in humans by excising these genes. However, these deficiencies are also associated with stunted growth.6 Scientists must first develop techniques to turn the genetic expression on and off before moving on with developmental issues.

Currently, Dr. Christopher Voigt and his research team at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology are attempting to solve this very issue. In 2005, the team developed techniques to bestow bacteria with new abilities to sense their environment.7 As proof of their concept, they inserted genes into E. coli (which normally live in the light-deficient environment of the large intestine) in order to allow the bacterium to react to light stimulus. This experiment demonstrated the ability to genetically engineer a desired genetic response to a designated stimulus.

In the past five years, the team has further expanded this genetic control to operate in more complex functions.8 By placing different promoters (regions of DNA that initiate transcription of specific genes) and repressors (DNA-binding proteins that prevent transcription of a particular gene) on select sites in the bacterial DNA and then spatially arranging them in a particular fashion, Dr. Voigts team programmed the bacteria to give certain outputs in the presence of a series of specific environmental triggers. Consequently, these extensively modified bacteria could sense and react to changes in light, temperature, acidity, and the concentration of specific compounds in a carefully designed manner.2 In fact, Dr. Voigts team has already modified E. coli to invade cancer cells (in vitro) and release cytotoxic chemicals while leaving normal-functioning cells alone.9 This success suggests that programmed bacteria may be used in the future to deliver anything from cancer treatments to genetic modifiers. The diversity of treatments that could be delivered in this manner provides an important advantage in extending the human lifespan. Nonetheless, further research on the effectiveness and potential side effects is still required before programmable bacterium can be utilized as a vector in human patients.

Dr. Aubrey de Grey, a theorist and geneticist, has proposed an additional approach to the problem of aging. He alleges that the accumulation of compounds in the body that cannot be broken down by enzymatic activity can generate the aging effect.10 This junk exists both within the cell and in the extracellular matrix. Several other conditions associated with aging, such as macular degeneration, atherosclerosis, and Alzheimers, arise from a buildup of harmful proteins in or near cells, compromising their structural integrity and proper function.11

Dr. de Greys pursuit of a treatment has led his team to the most unlikely of places: the graveyard. As it turns out, the solution to aging may be found in the processes occurring postmortem.2 After an individual dies, insects, bacteria, and other decomposers break down cells and tissue, including the compounds that the body was incapable of digesting. If scientists can discover exactly which enzymes and genes are employed in the digestion of those compounds, then perhaps they can formulate the rejuvenating medicine that Dr. de Grey envisions.2

While the hunt for specific compounds and genes continues, the mere prospect of viable rejuvenation has excited many scientists. While other treatments must be utilized while a patient is relatively young, an injection of Dr. de Greys microbial enzymes could remove the harmful clutter and permit the body to repair damage independent of age.2 Consequently, the aging process could be halted, allowing humans to remain 25 years old forever.

Despite these promising projects, gene therapy must overcome several obstacles before it can become a viable anti-aging treatment. Current delivery systems consist of other viruses or bacteria.12 However, these often incite an immune response that destroys them and the designed genes that they carry. Thus, even if the initial dose achieves a certain degree of success, the triggered immune response could diminish the effectiveness of subsequent treatment.12 This presents a major predicament because current gene therapies are short-lived and require multiple applications to affect the scores of cells in the body.12 The only other options, injecting either naked DNA or DNA protected by a protein complex, are even more likely to trigger an immune response, as the body has evolved highly specialized defenses to destroy foreign genetic material.12

Even if scientists do overcome these setbacks, another hurdle lies within the cell. Gene therapy is ideal when only one gene is involved. However, inserting multiple genes simultaneously can have serious consequences. For example, the probability of inserting a promoter or repressor into the wrong section of DNA and inducing the formation of tumors increases when more genes are involved.12 Unfortunately, the anti-aging medicines devised by scientists such as Dr. Voigt and Dr. Longo do involve several genes and genetic pathways. Nonetheless, medicines that will help us achieve immortality are still in the early stages, and it is possible that multiple research teams are working on gene therapy projects will aid in resolving its problems.

If immortality crosses over into the realm of reality, humans will have to answer the question, Should people live forever? After all, many areas around the world already struggle with overpopulation and the problems with pollution that accompany it. Consequently, immortality may necessitate laws barring conception in an effort to curb a rising population. Also, the technology may be expensive at first, further dividing society according to wealth and promoting inequality.

Perhaps the biggest obstacle standing in the way of gene therapies becoming commonplace in the medical market is that they can be viewed as incursions against the philosophy of human life. The ethical dilemmas surrounding the introduction of anti-aging technologies are largely centered upon the potential progression towards achieving immortality in humans. Human societies operate under the belief that life has value because it is finite. People are motivated to work hard to fulfill both personal and professional goals before their time runs out. Relationships matter more as people know that time with one another is relatively limited. However, immortality could radically alter such a belief system. As extended families could come to include many more generations, the traditional family structure might be threatened by a lifespan extension. The job market could be drastically changed by a much higher retirement age, which would inevitably require governments to restructure their methods for allocating limited resources. The possible outcomes are endless and largely unpredictable.

All of these ethical and social issues present a substantial barrier to introducing immortality drugs. However, the issue of whether or not immortality therapies should ever be utilized will not be so easily decided. After all, the human instinct causes us to desire prolonged life and the prospect of conquering death seems irresistible. If these therapies are indeed introduced to the general public, their implications for humanity will be unprecedented.MD

References

1. Sonnega, A. (2006). The Future of Human Life Expectancy. Retrieved from Population Reference Bureau website: http://www.prb.org/pdf06/NIA_FutureofLifeExpectancy.pdf

2. Through the Wormhole: Can We Live Forever? : Videos : Science Channel [Video file]. (2011, July 27). Retrieved from http://www.sciencechannel.com/tv-shows/through-the-wormhole/videos/can-we-live-forever.html

3. Madia, F., Gattazzo, C., Wei, M., Fabrizio, P., Burhans, W. C., Weinberger, M., . . . Longo, V. D. (2008). Longevity mutation in SCH9 prevents recombination errors and premature genomic instability in a Werner/Bloom model system. Journal of Cell Biology, 180(1), 67-81. doi:10.1083/jcb.200707154

4. Kaczor, T., & Longo, V. (2012, April 3). Caloric Restriction and Fasting in Disease Prevention and Treatment Natural Medicine Journal: The Official Journal of the American Association of Naturopathic Physicians. Retrieved March 14, 2013, from http://www.naturalmedicinejournal.com/article_content.asp?article=312

5. Yorimitsu, T., Zaman, S., Broach, J. R., & Klionsky, D. J. (2007). Protein Kinase A and Sch9 Cooperatively Regulate Induction of Autophagy in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Molecular Biology of The Cell, 18(10), 4180-4189. doi:10.1091/mbc.E07-05-0485

6. Taubes, G. (2013, March 27). Rare Form of Dwarfism May Protect Against Diabetes Cancer. Discover. Retrieved from http://http://discovermagazine.com/2013/april/19-double-edged-genes#.Ux4NM1xS_nY

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